In A Clash of Kings (1998), George R.R. Martin gives voice to the idea that power is rooted in perception. As Varys tells Tyrion, “Power resides where men believe it resides. No more and no less.” Here, Varys suggests that authority is not a fixed or tangible force, but a construct sustained by collective belief—“a shadow on the wall” with no substance beyond what people project onto it.

Michel Foucault expanded this idea, famously stating, “Power is everywhere … because it comes from everywhere.” He rejected the traditional view of power as something possessed, seeing it instead as relational and diffuse—exercised through networks of daily interaction. From families to schools and workplaces, Foucault’s “microphysics” of power describes how control operates through countless small interactions. He defined power as “something which circulates… functions only when it is part of a chain,” emphasising that it is not owned, but continually enacted and negotiated through relationships.

This fluid, relational view of power helps explain why people are so often guided by surface cues of authority. Authority bias leads individuals to assign greater credibility to those perceived to hold power—especially when status is signaled through uniforms, titles, or roles. Many are psychologically motivated to view authority as legitimate, increasing the likelihood of compliance. As a social cognitive bias, it shapes how people respond to perceived authority in both belief and behavior.

Perception and appearances often matter more than substance. People commonly obey traffic directions from anyone in a police uniform—even if it's fictitious—because it signals sanctioned authority and triggers automatic compliance.

Expert Power and the Competence Trap

Authority bias also extends into domains shaped by expert power, where trust rests on perceived knowledge. People often place deep trust in professionals—like doctors—assuming their judgments are more valid simply due to their status. While this can be a useful shortcut, it becomes dangerous when applied uncritically. A well-known study by psychiatrist Charles Hofling illustrated this: 21 out of 22 nurses were willing to administer a potentially lethal drug simply because a doctor instructed them to, despite clear rules against it.

A similar pattern appeared in psychologist Stanley Milgram’s famous experiments on obedience in the 1960s. In one variation, he found that compliance dropped from 65% to just 20% when orders came from someone in plain clothes instead of a lab coat—showing how symbolic signs of expertise can dramatically increase obedience.

Explanation of Milgram’s study: Milgram’s original experiment tested how far ordinary people would go in obeying an authority figure—even when it involved harming another person. Participants were told to deliver electric shocks to a "learner" (actually an actor) every time they gave a wrong answer. Despite hearing cries of pain, many participants continued to deliver shocks when urged by the experimenter in a lab coat, showing how authority—and its visual symbols—can override moral judgment.

Status Over Substance

This same psychological tendency plays out in professional settings. In the business world, authority bias often manifests as the HIPPO effect—short for the Highest Paid Person's Opinion. This refers to the tendency of employees and stakeholders to prioritize or agree with the views of senior or highly paid individuals, even when those opinions may lack evidence or be less informed. The influence of status and salary frequently overrides objective analysis and expert input, leading to suboptimal decisions and stifled innovation.

Status Cues and Assumptions

Visual cues like luxury items and attire also serve as powerful shorthand for perceived power. High-end watches, designer clothing, and premium cars act as potent status symbols, signaling wealth and social dominance. These signals often lead people to infer competence and importance—even before a word is spoken—shaping how others respond and comply.

Exploiting Perceived Power in Security

These automatic responses to perceived power—compliance, trust, and lowered skepticism—are exactly what social engineers exploit. By manipulating symbols of authority, leveraging cognitive biases like authority bias, and relying on ingrained social norms, they craft convincing façades that bypass security protocols and override natural suspicion.

  • Authority Bias and Legitimate Power Social engineers impersonate managers or supervisors using uniforms, badges, or confident behavior to suggest formal authority and prompt unquestioned compliance.
  • Expert Power and Assumed Competence

Claiming roles like IT auditors or consultants, they use jargon and props to create an illusion of expertise.

  • Referent Power and Charisma

Through friendliness and charm, they quickly build rapport to gain trust.

  • Plausibility and Social Conformity

Even when something feels off, credible appearances and social pressure discourage challenge, minimizing resistance.

Safeguarding CPOs Against Authority Bias and Manipulation

Close Protection Officers bear a unique responsibility as the figurative and literal gatekeepers of their principal’s safety. While perceived power can mislead anyone—through confidence, uniforms, or status cues—CPOs must remain unswayed by appearances. Their role demands heightened awareness of how such symbols are used to bypass trust, protocols, and access. They must stay attuned to manipulation that exploits social biases and surface cues, and respond with deliberate caution. Their effectiveness hinges on the ability to pause and assess, consistently looking beyond presentation to ensure legitimacy and uphold the integrity of the mission. To support this vigilance, the following practices are essential:

  • Adhere Rigidly to Procedures: Security protocols must not be bypassed or altered based on who is making the request. These procedures exist precisely to prevent manipulation and maintain order, particularly in high-pressure situations.
  • Train Staff to Question Authority: CPOs should be trained to question authority respectfully and consistently. Just because someone appears important or legitimate doesn’t mean they are. Verification must always take precedence over assumption.
  • Promote Healthy Skepticism: Encourage polite but firm challenges—such as “Who do you work for?”—especially when requests fall outside routine procedures. Always seek secondary confirmation for access or instructions.
  • Limit Authority to a Small Circle: Ensure only the principal or a trusted, predetermined inner circle has real power or decision-making authority. CPOs should be clear on this hierarchy, resist influence from anyone outside it and should not be swayed by others’ perceived status or apparent authority.
  • Leverage Experience and Training: Experienced CPOs are the first line of defense. Through training and real-world exposure, they are equipped to recognize and resist manipulation rooted in authority bias, confidence, uniforms, or other status cues. Their vigilance sets the standard for others and reinforces a culture of critical awareness.